Impact of Shape vs. Color Cues in Graphic Organizers on the Expository Paragraph Writing of Students With Learning Disabilities and Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

Abstract

Writing is a critical skill for academic and professional success, yet students with learning disabilities (LD) and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) often struggle due to task complexity and disability limitations. This study examined the use of graphic organizers for expository paragraph writing proficiency by comparing the effectiveness of color-labeled vs. shape-labeled graphic organizers in improving knowledge and quality of writing among upper-elementary and middle school students. Five students, ages 9–12, participated in a synchronous remote intervention that included explicit instruction, reverse-engineered paragraph writing, and practice with feedback. The single-case research design also aimed to identify intervention components yielding the greatest improvement in writing quality. Students completed pre- and post-intervention knowledge assessments, writing probes during each session, and two maintenance probes. The independent variable was type of graphic organizer used (color-labeled or shape-labeled), and the dependent variables were understanding of expository paragraph sentence types and functions, and writing quality. Results indicated that both types of graphic organizers improved writing quality, with only practical difference between conditions. The study enhances understanding of optimal intervention components, such as session quantity and presentation order, and underscores the importance of graphic organizers, explicit instruction, and practice in supporting students with LD and ADHD.